Your professor has just given you an assignment. You
are required to write a paper about a specific topic, or to come up with
a topic of your own. You begin to panic. "Where do I start?" you may
ask yourself. "How do I begin?"
First of all, take a deep breath and relax. You can do
this! Aside from maintaining a positive attitude, here are a couple of
ideas you can use to get yourself organized. Keep in mind that the
following techniques and advice can be useful for both research papers
and regular essays.
Prewriting techniques
The following procedures help you to unlock your
memory and to associate your ideas with other experiences and
recollections in order to come up with a workable and interesting paper
topic. Three such activities involve directed questioning, freewriting,
and brainstorming. You may not need to use all three, but you should
acquaint yourself with each activity to find one that is most productive
for you.
Directed Questioning
If you already have a topic that interests you but are
not sure how to approach it, try directed questioning. Rather than
encouraging you to expand your thinking, this method helps you to narrow
your broad ideas. These questions may prove helpful:
How can I describe the topic? How can I define the
topic? How does the topic resemble or differ form other topics? How does
the topic work? How does the topic affect other things? Can I argue for
or against the topic? Why does this topic interest me? What ideas are
generally associated with the topic?
Freewriting
Many people find that they can bring ideas for
developing a topic to the surface through freewriting, a strategy
designed to "free" ideas from your subconscious mind and get them down
on paper. This kind of writing is "free" in another sense; you don't
need to worry about punctuation, correct grammar usage, etc. Your main
objective is to write for a sustained period of time (ten to fifteen
minutes) without stopping.
Freewriting can be open or focused. If you really do
not have any idea what to write about, just begin to write down your
impressions and thoughts in an "open" freewrite. Filling the page with
words may coax something from your mind. Once you have done this, choose
an idea or two from your open freewrite to explore in a more "focused"
freewrite. Writing down your thoughts about a more specific idea that
came up in your open freewrite will narrow down your topic even more,
and hopefully will lead to the idea that will be the basis for your
paper.
If you get stuck while you are freewriting and can not
think of anything else to write, write the same word over and over
again until you can think of something to write. This way you will not
break your train of thought.
Brainstorming
Another way to get ideas down on paper quickly is
through brainstorming Start with a significant word or phrase, and try
to record everything that comes to your mind. If you reach a point where
you can no longer come up with any new ideas, ask a friend to help you
brainstorm some fresh topics.
After you have finished brainstorming, take a look at
the material you have generated. What items seem to go together? What
further connections can you see? What ideas and terms do you want to
develop? What idea or concept seems to dominate your list? What material
is surprising? You may decide to use most of the items you produced, or
you may find only a few fragments to keep. However, one of these
fragments may point the way to a good paper.
Audience
As you prepare to write about your topic, it is
important to consider the audience for whom you are writing. If your
audience is only your professor, for example, he or she may not require
as much background information about a topic as would be required for a
more general audience of your peers. Knowing who your audience is will
help you decide how much information to present, and in what manner to
present it. Be sure to ask your professor if you are unsure about the
audience your paper should be intended for.
Organizing your topic
Whether you have come up with a topic on your own or
whether you are given a specific question to answer, after you determine
your audience, the next step is often to consider the order in which
you will present information about your topic. An essay usually follows
this structured format: introduction, body, and conclusion.
Note: Some writers are not comfortable thinking about
the order of their ideas before they write them. They may prefer to
write a rough draft of their paper by letting their ideas flow freely
and then crafting a structure for their thoughts. This can produce
excellent writing. However, keep in mind that whether you start your
paper by working from a specific structure or whether you start by
writing freely and then restructuring your ideas to follow a certain
order, it is still important to have a strong sense of organization in
your paper that works to support your main idea. In your final draft
your ideas should not just flow randomly; the reader should sense that
there is a reason why you have chosen to structure your ideas the way
you have.
1. Your introduction will begin with a broad general statement related to your thesis.
An introduction gets the reader's attention and gives
the reader enough background information to understand your thesis,
which is usually the last sentence in your introduction. A good
introduction does not depend on the reader being too familiar with the
topic or assigned question. It also avoids being too general or obvious,
and defines key words or terms that are important to the reader's
understanding of the topic. In addition, it sets the overall tone of the
paper, whether it be informative, persuasive, personal, formal, etc.
Think of your introduction as a way to prepare the
reader for your main idea - start off general (but not boring), and lead
up to what you want the reader to believe by the end of your paper.
What is a thesis statement?
A thesis statement is a sentence that communicates the
main idea of your paper to the reader. Your thesis tells the reader
what point you are going to make about your topic. If someone were to
ask you, "What is the main idea you want people to believe after reading
your paper?", the sentence you would give in reply is your thesis
statement. Remember that a thesis statement does more than simply
introduce the reader to the topic of your paper; a thesis statement
takes a stand on a topic.
Example:
Topic: Researching information on the internet
Thesis: Researching information on the internet has
many disadvantages, including unreliable web sites, the large amount of
time it takes to find valuable information, and the difficulty of
verifying the truth of the information found.
Why is a thesis statement necessary?
Aside from making a paper more organized, a thesis
causes you to focus your thoughts as you write. Knowing what the main
point of your essay is allows you to narrow down your information. You
are then able to include information that is relevant to your paper and
weed out any unnecessary data.
Examples of how a thesis statement can be written:
A good thesis statement can be written in four different ways (or a combination of these styles may be used).
1. A strong controversial statement--
Bilingual education has not fulfilled its early promise.
2. A call to action--
All inner-city schools should set up bilingual programs.
3. A question that will be answered in the essay--
What can bilingual education accomplish for a child? It can lead to academic and personal development.
4. A preview or forecast of the structure of the
essay--Bilingual education suffers from two main problems: the shortage
of trained teachers and the lack of parental involvement.
A thesis statement in a persuasive essay:
A thesis in a persuasive essay demonstrates where you
stand on the issue. Although you consider alternative and opposing
arguments, you state your opinion clearly. Here is an example of a weak
thesis statement in a persuasive essay and its revision.
Needs Revision:
Bilingual education has advantages and disadvantages.
(This is a statement of fact; it does not express a conclusion or take a stand on the issue. This statement is too vague.)
Revision:
A bilingual program is more effective than an immersion program in helping students to succeed academically.
(This thesis is not a simple statement of fact, but rather an opinion that will be supported with evidence in the paper.)
Final thesis tips:
Once you have developed a good thesis, write it on an
index card and prop it up next to your computer so you will stick to the
main point of your paper as you write.
Also, remember that you may want to change your thesis
statement as you discover new views and information, and that's okay.
It's easier to change your thesis to fit the information in your paper
than it is to go back and try to fit your information to your thesis.
2. The paragraphs in the body of your paper following
the introduction can include concrete details, examples/incidents, facts
and statistics, and supporting arguments.
The number of paragraphs in the body of your paper
will be determined by the content of your paper. Remember, it is a good
idea to stick to one main idea per paragraph, without switching to new
topics or digressing.
Each sentence within your paragraphs should relate to
the main topic sentence of that paragraph (the sentence that states what
the paragraph is going to be about - usually located at the beginning
of each new paragraph). In addition, each paragraph in your essay should
support or relate in some way to your thesis statement.
To check whether you are sticking to one topic per
paragraph and whether your paragraphs are related closely enough to your
thesis, try doing a backwards outline. After you have finished writing
your draft, count the number of paragraphs in your essay, writing the
numbers on a separate sheet of paper. Then skim your draft and write
down enough words next to each number to represent what is in each
paragraph.
If you find that you have a lot of words with little
relationship to each other next to your numbers, you should probably go
back to your draft and rework your paragraphs so that they each cover
only one main idea. Also, if you find that you have paragraphs which
cover information unrelated to your thesis, you might want to consider
either cutting or modifying those paragraphs in some way. Finally, doing
a backwards outline like this will show you whether or not you have
followed a consistant outline in the organization of your ideas, and it
will assist you in reorganizing your ideas if necessary so that you are
following a consistent outline.
3. Your conclusion will summarize the main points in your essay.
Your concluding paragraph should also include (usually
at the very beginning or the very end of your paragraph) a restatement
of your thesis using different words. You should end your conclusion on a
strong note, without apologizing for anything in your paper and without
introducing completely new ideas that were not covered in your paper.
It is often a good idea to end your conclusion with a call to action or a
comment regarding the future as related to your topic.
Working from an outline
Once you have a general idea of what will go in the
introduction, body, and conclusion of your paper, the next step can be
to develop a more specific outline in which you break down what
specifically will be in each paragraph of your essay. Although some
students find it more effective to create an outline based on a draft
that they have already written, creating an outline ahead of time can
help keep your writing more focused than inventing paragraphs as you go.
Either method can create great writing - you might want to experiment
with both methods to see which one works best for you.
The purpose of an outline:
An outline helps organize your ideas. An outline
presents your material in a logical form. An outline shows the
relationship between the ideas in your writing. An outline constructs an
ordered overview of your writing. An outline defines boundaries and
groups within your paper.
An important part of outlining your ideas is to remain
consistent. For example, if you are presenting information or ideas in a
certain order at the beginning of your paper, don't switch that order
half way through your paper. This may confuse your reader. Try to make
it obvious to your readers why and how you are presenting your
information so that they don't have to work at figuring out your
organization as they are reading your paper.
Here is an example of an outline covering the topic of rain forest preservation.
OUTLINE
I. Introduction
A. Square miles
B. Location
C. Thesis:
Because of the valuable characteristics rain forests
possess, the rapid destruction of the forests is creating negative
effects on the environment.
II. Characteristics of rain forests
A. Variety of species
B. Value of rain forests
1. Medicinal values
2. Food values
III. The destruction of rain forests
A. Rate at which rain forests are destroyed
B. Reasons why rain forests are destroyed
1. Poverty
2. Large company projects
IV. Effects on environment
A. Extinction of species
B. Global warming
V. Reactions
VI. Conclusion
A. Restate thesis
B. Key role
C. Consequences
Transitions
Once you understand how to organize the ideas in your
paper, the next step is to figure out how to create logical transitions
between those ideas. A transition serves as a bridge connecting one
paragraph, sentence, or word with another. Not only does a transition
signal a connection, it also identifies the kind of connection by
indicating to readers how the item preceding the transition relates to
that which follows. Transitions help readers anticipate how the next
paragraph or sentence will affect the meaning of what they have just
read.
Transitional words and phrases showing logical relations:
To introduce another item in a series: first, second,
in the second place; for one thing...for another; next; then;
furthermore; moreover; in addition; finally; last; also; similarly;
besides; and; as well as.
To introduce an illustration or other specification: in particular; specifically; for instance; for example; that is; namely.
To introduce a result or a cause: consequently; as a result; hence; accordingly; thus; so; therefore; then; because; since; for.
To introduce a restatement: that is; in other words; in simpler terms; to put it differently.
To introduce a conclusion or summary: in conclusion;
finally; all in all; evidently; clearly; actually; to sum up;
altogether; of course.
To introduce an opposing point: but; however; yet;
nevertheless; on the contrary; on the other hand; in contrast; still;
neither...nor.
To introduce a concession to an opposing view: certainly; naturally; of course; it is true; to be sure; granted.
To resume the original line of reasoning after a concession: nonetheless; all the same; even though; still; nevertheless.
An easy way to go about making transitions between
paragraphs is to use the 1/2 and 1/2 method. When you begin a new
paragraph, the first sentence of that paragraph should be half of what
you just said and half of what you are now going to say. However, the
trick is that you need to find the connecting idea between the two
paragraphs.
Example:
Cats are the greatest pets to have. They are friendly,
cuddly, and intelligent companions. Many people value their cats so
much that the cats seem like members of their family. Cats also do not
need to be walked, or otherwise exercised, very much. A ball of string
is enough to keep them busy for hours.
In addition to cats being great pets, dogs are also
wonderful pets to have. They provide protection in addition to
companionship, and they also help their owners get exercise through
taking walks. Dogs are great for cheering people up if they are in bad
moods, and they are extremely loyal pets to have.
The connecting idea between these two paragraphs is that both cats and dogs make great pets.
Final tips:
Before you become overwhelmed by the entire writing
process, here are a couple of final tips that may alleviate some stress
and tension.
Instead of just turning on the computer, writing until
you have the number of pages required for the assignment, then doing a
spell check and turning the paper in, break the writing process down
into small chunks. For example, set aside a specific block of time in
your day (20 minutes or so) to brainstorm ideas for your paper. When you
have completed this step, take a short break. Next, develop an outline
that summarizes the main points you want to cover in your paper. After
this step is finished, you may then begin to jot down some ideas that
could be considered for a thesis statement. This whole process could
take place within an hour, or you could spread it out over a day or two
if you prefer.
Next, begin writing a rough draft of your paper (it is
helpful to start writing the day after you have completed the steps
above to give yourself time to think about your paper a little more).
Proofread the paper yourself, and then give it to a friend. He or she
may be able to find errors that you overlooked the first time and offer
other helpful suggestions. Rewrite and revise until you come up with an
end product that you can be proud of. This process can take one day or
more than a week, depending on the amount of time you have and the
amount of work you are willing to put forth to produce a strong piece of
writing.
Remember, the writing process is a procedure that
takes time, time, and more time. Do not expect yourself to sit down the
night before a paper is due and create a masterpiece. Give yourself
ample time to organize, structure, and edit your paper. In addition, it
is important to go back and revise your draft several times. Try not to
think of your papers as being "done," however tempting that may be;
strong writers recognize that writing is a constant process of revisions
to improve not only content but sentence structure and style as well.
Finally, remember that if you would like additional
help with a paper, free assistance is available at the Hawley Academic
Resource Center. Just call us at 961-1524 to make an appointment.
