Good Tree

Oh give thanks to the Lord, for He is good! 

For His mercy endures forever. 

Psalms 136:26

 "RUN-ON SENTENCE" 

 

A RUN-ON SENTENCE (sometimes called a "fused sentence") has at least two parts, either one of which can stand by itself (in other words, two independent clauses), but the two parts have been smooched together instead of being properly connected.

It is important to realize that the length of a sentence really has nothing to do with whether a sentence is a run-on or not; being a run-on is a structural flaw that can plague even a very short sentence:
The sun is high, put on some sunblock.

An extremely long sentence, on the other hand, might be a "run-off-at-the-mouth" sentence, but it can be otherwise sound, structurally.

When two independent clauses are connected by only a comma, they constitute a run-on sentence that is called a comma-splice. The example just above (about the sunscreen) is a comma-splice. When you use a comma to connect two independent clauses, it must be accompanied by a little conjunction (and, but, for, nor, yet, or, so).
The sun is high, so put on some sunscreen.

Run-on sentences happen typically under the following circumstances. When an independent clause gives an order or directive based on what was said in the prior independent clause:
This next chapter has a lot of difficult information in it, you should start studying right away. (We could put a period where that comma is and start a new sentence. A semicolon might also work there.)
When two independent clauses are connected by a transitional expression (conjunctive adverb) such as however, moreover, nevertheless.
Mr. Nguyen has sent his four children to ivy-league colleges, however, he has sacrificed his health working day and night in that dusty bakery. (Again, where that first comma appears, we could have used either a period — and started a new sentence — or a semicolon.)
When the second of two independent clauses contains a pronoun that connects it to the first independent clause.
This computer doesn't make sense to me, it came without a manual. (Although these two clauses are quite brief, and the ideas are closely related, this is a run-on sentence. We need a period where that comma now stands.)
Most of those computers in the Learning Assistance Center are broken already, this proves my point about American computer manufacturers. Again, two nicely related clauses, incorrectly connected — a run-on. Use a period to cure this sentence.

Prewriting Techniques

      Your professor has just given you an assignment. You are required to write a paper about a specific topic, or to come up with a topic of your own. You begin to panic. "Where do I start?" you may ask yourself. "How do I begin?"

      First of all, take a deep breath and relax. You can do this! Aside from maintaining a positive attitude, here are a couple of ideas you can use to get yourself organized. Keep in mind that the following techniques and advice can be useful for both research papers and regular essays.

Prewriting techniques

 

      The following procedures help you to unlock your memory and to associate your ideas with other experiences and recollections in order to come up with a workable and interesting paper topic. Three such activities involve directed questioning, freewriting, and brainstorming. You may not need to use all three, but you should acquaint yourself with each activity to find one that is most productive for you.

Directed Questioning

 

      If you already have a topic that interests you but are not sure how to approach it, try directed questioning. Rather than encouraging you to expand your thinking, this method helps you to narrow your broad ideas. These questions may prove helpful:

How can I describe the topic? How can I define the topic? How does the topic resemble or differ form other topics? How does the topic work? How does the topic affect other things? Can I argue for or against the topic? Why does this topic interest me? What ideas are generally associated with the topic?

Freewriting

 

      Many people find that they can bring ideas for developing a topic to the surface through freewriting, a strategy designed to "free" ideas from your subconscious mind and get them down on paper. This kind of writing is "free" in another sense; you don't need to worry about punctuation, correct grammar usage, etc. Your main objective is to write for a sustained period of time (ten to fifteen minutes) without stopping.

Freewriting can be open or focused. If you really do not have any idea what to write about, just begin to write down your impressions and thoughts in an "open" freewrite. Filling the page with words may coax something from your mind. Once you have done this, choose an idea or two from your open freewrite to explore in a more "focused" freewrite. Writing down your thoughts about a more specific idea that came up in your open freewrite will narrow down your topic even more, and hopefully will lead to the idea that will be the basis for your paper.

If you get stuck while you are freewriting and can not think of anything else to write, write the same word over and over again until you can think of something to write. This way you will not break your train of thought.

Brainstorming

 

      Another way to get ideas down on paper quickly is through brainstorming Start with a significant word or phrase, and try to record everything that comes to your mind. If you reach a point where you can no longer come up with any new ideas, ask a friend to help you brainstorm some fresh topics.

After you have finished brainstorming, take a look at the material you have generated. What items seem to go together? What further connections can you see? What ideas and terms do you want to develop? What idea or concept seems to dominate your list? What material is surprising? You may decide to use most of the items you produced, or you may find only a few fragments to keep. However, one of these fragments may point the way to a good paper.

Audience

 

      As you prepare to write about your topic, it is important to consider the audience for whom you are writing. If your audience is only your professor, for example, he or she may not require as much background information about a topic as would be required for a more general audience of your peers. Knowing who your audience is will help you decide how much information to present, and in what manner to present it. Be sure to ask your professor if you are unsure about the audience your paper should be intended for.

Organizing your topic

 

      Whether you have come up with a topic on your own or whether you are given a specific question to answer, after you determine your audience, the next step is often to consider the order in which you will present information about your topic. An essay usually follows this structured format: introduction, body, and conclusion.

Note: Some writers are not comfortable thinking about the order of their ideas before they write them. They may prefer to write a rough draft of their paper by letting their ideas flow freely and then crafting a structure for their thoughts. This can produce excellent writing. However, keep in mind that whether you start your paper by working from a specific structure or whether you start by writing freely and then restructuring your ideas to follow a certain order, it is still important to have a strong sense of organization in your paper that works to support your main idea. In your final draft your ideas should not just flow randomly; the reader should sense that there is a reason why you have chosen to structure your ideas the way you have.

1. Your introduction will begin with a broad general statement related to your thesis.

An introduction gets the reader's attention and gives the reader enough background information to understand your thesis, which is usually the last sentence in your introduction. A good introduction does not depend on the reader being too familiar with the topic or assigned question. It also avoids being too general or obvious, and defines key words or terms that are important to the reader's understanding of the topic. In addition, it sets the overall tone of the paper, whether it be informative, persuasive, personal, formal, etc.

      Think of your introduction as a way to prepare the reader for your main idea - start off general (but not boring), and lead up to what you want the reader to believe by the end of your paper.

What is a thesis statement?

 

      A thesis statement is a sentence that communicates the main idea of your paper to the reader. Your thesis tells the reader what point you are going to make about your topic. If someone were to ask you, "What is the main idea you want people to believe after reading your paper?", the sentence you would give in reply is your thesis statement. Remember that a thesis statement does more than simply introduce the reader to the topic of your paper; a thesis statement takes a stand on a topic.

Example:

Topic: Researching information on the internet

Thesis: Researching information on the internet has many disadvantages, including unreliable web sites, the large amount of time it takes to find valuable information, and the difficulty of verifying the truth of the information found.

Why is a thesis statement necessary?

      Aside from making a paper more organized, a thesis causes you to focus your thoughts as you write. Knowing what the main point of your essay is allows you to narrow down your information. You are then able to include information that is relevant to your paper and weed out any unnecessary data.

 Examples of how a thesis statement can be written:

A good thesis statement can be written in four different ways (or a combination of these styles may be used).

1. A strong controversial statement--

Bilingual education has not fulfilled its early promise.

2. A call to action--

All inner-city schools should set up bilingual programs.

3. A question that will be answered in the essay--

What can bilingual education accomplish for a child? It can lead to academic and personal development.

4. A preview or forecast of the structure of the essay--Bilingual education suffers from two main problems: the shortage of trained teachers and the lack of parental involvement.

A thesis statement in a persuasive essay:

A thesis in a persuasive essay demonstrates where you stand on the issue. Although you consider alternative and opposing arguments, you state your opinion clearly. Here is an example of a weak thesis statement in a persuasive essay and its revision.

Needs Revision:

Bilingual education has advantages and disadvantages.

(This is a statement of fact; it does not express a conclusion or take a stand on the issue. This statement is too vague.)

Revision:

A bilingual program is more effective than an immersion program in helping students to succeed academically.

(This thesis is not a simple statement of fact, but rather an opinion that will be supported with evidence in the paper.)

Final thesis tips:

     Once you have developed a good thesis, write it on an index card and prop it up next to your computer so you will stick to the main point of your paper as you write.

Also, remember that you may want to change your thesis statement as you discover new views and information, and that's okay. It's easier to change your thesis to fit the information in your paper than it is to go back and try to fit your information to your thesis.

2. The paragraphs in the body of your paper following the introduction can include concrete details, examples/incidents, facts and statistics, and supporting arguments.

The number of paragraphs in the body of your paper will be determined by the content of your paper. Remember, it is a good idea to stick to one main idea per paragraph, without switching to new topics or digressing.

      Each sentence within your paragraphs should relate to the main topic sentence of that paragraph (the sentence that states what the paragraph is going to be about - usually located at the beginning of each new paragraph). In addition, each paragraph in your essay should support or relate in some way to your thesis statement.

      To check whether you are sticking to one topic per paragraph and whether your paragraphs are related closely enough to your thesis, try doing a backwards outline. After you have finished writing your draft, count the number of paragraphs in your essay, writing the numbers on a separate sheet of paper. Then skim your draft and write down enough words next to each number to represent what is in each paragraph.

      If you find that you have a lot of words with little relationship to each other next to your numbers, you should probably go back to your draft and rework your paragraphs so that they each cover only one main idea. Also, if you find that you have paragraphs which cover information unrelated to your thesis, you might want to consider either cutting or modifying those paragraphs in some way. Finally, doing a backwards outline like this will show you whether or not you have followed a consistant outline in the organization of your ideas, and it will assist you in reorganizing your ideas if necessary so that you are following a consistent outline.

3. Your conclusion will summarize the main points in your essay.

      Your concluding paragraph should also include (usually at the very beginning or the very end of your paragraph) a restatement of your thesis using different words. You should end your conclusion on a strong note, without apologizing for anything in your paper and without introducing completely new ideas that were not covered in your paper. It is often a good idea to end your conclusion with a call to action or a comment regarding the future as related to your topic.

Working from an outline

 

      Once you have a general idea of what will go in the introduction, body, and conclusion of your paper, the next step can be to develop a more specific outline in which you break down what specifically will be in each paragraph of your essay. Although some students find it more effective to create an outline based on a draft that they have already written, creating an outline ahead of time can help keep your writing more focused than inventing paragraphs as you go. Either method can create great writing - you might want to experiment with both methods to see which one works best for you.

The purpose of an outline:

      An outline helps organize your ideas. An outline presents your material in a logical form. An outline shows the relationship between the ideas in your writing. An outline constructs an ordered overview of your writing. An outline defines boundaries and groups within your paper.

      An important part of outlining your ideas is to remain consistent. For example, if you are presenting information or ideas in a certain order at the beginning of your paper, don't switch that order half way through your paper. This may confuse your reader. Try to make it obvious to your readers why and how you are presenting your information so that they don't have to work at figuring out your organization as they are reading your paper.

Here is an example of an outline covering the topic of rain forest preservation.

OUTLINE

I. Introduction

A. Square miles

B. Location

C. Thesis:

      Because of the valuable characteristics rain forests possess, the rapid destruction of the forests is creating negative effects on the environment.

II. Characteristics of rain forests

A. Variety of species

B. Value of rain forests

1. Medicinal values

2. Food values

III. The destruction of rain forests

A. Rate at which rain forests are destroyed

B. Reasons why rain forests are destroyed

1. Poverty

2. Large company projects

IV. Effects on environment

A. Extinction of species

B. Global warming

V. Reactions

VI. Conclusion

A. Restate thesis

B. Key role

C. Consequences

Transitions

 

      Once you understand how to organize the ideas in your paper, the next step is to figure out how to create logical transitions between those ideas. A transition serves as a bridge connecting one paragraph, sentence, or word with another. Not only does a transition signal a connection, it also identifies the kind of connection by indicating to readers how the item preceding the transition relates to that which follows. Transitions help readers anticipate how the next paragraph or sentence will affect the meaning of what they have just read.

Transitional words and phrases showing logical relations:

To introduce another item in a series: first, second, in the second place; for one thing...for another; next; then; furthermore; moreover; in addition; finally; last; also; similarly; besides; and; as well as.

To introduce an illustration or other specification: in particular; specifically; for instance; for example; that is; namely.

To introduce a result or a cause: consequently; as a result; hence; accordingly; thus; so; therefore; then; because; since; for.

To introduce a restatement: that is; in other words; in simpler terms; to put it differently.

To introduce a conclusion or summary: in conclusion; finally; all in all; evidently; clearly; actually; to sum up; altogether; of course.

To introduce an opposing point: but; however; yet; nevertheless; on the contrary; on the other hand; in contrast; still; neither...nor.

To introduce a concession to an opposing view: certainly; naturally; of course; it is true; to be sure; granted.

To resume the original line of reasoning after a concession: nonetheless; all the same; even though; still; nevertheless.

An easy way to go about making transitions between paragraphs is to use the 1/2 and 1/2 method. When you begin a new paragraph, the first sentence of that paragraph should be half of what you just said and half of what you are now going to say. However, the trick is that you need to find the connecting idea between the two paragraphs.

Example:

      Cats are the greatest pets to have. They are friendly, cuddly, and intelligent companions. Many people value their cats so much that the cats seem like members of their family. Cats also do not need to be walked, or otherwise exercised, very much. A ball of string is enough to keep them busy for hours.

In addition to cats being great pets, dogs are also wonderful pets to have. They provide protection in addition to companionship, and they also help their owners get exercise through taking walks. Dogs are great for cheering people up if they are in bad moods, and they are extremely loyal pets to have.

The connecting idea between these two paragraphs is that both cats and dogs make great pets.

Final tips:

 

    Before you become overwhelmed by the entire writing process, here are a couple of final tips that may alleviate some stress and tension.

Instead of just turning on the computer, writing until you have the number of pages required for the assignment, then doing a spell check and turning the paper in, break the writing process down into small chunks. For example, set aside a specific block of time in your day (20 minutes or so) to brainstorm ideas for your paper. When you have completed this step, take a short break. Next, develop an outline that summarizes the main points you want to cover in your paper. After this step is finished, you may then begin to jot down some ideas that could be considered for a thesis statement. This whole process could take place within an hour, or you could spread it out over a day or two if you prefer.

      Next, begin writing a rough draft of your paper (it is helpful to start writing the day after you have completed the steps above to give yourself time to think about your paper a little more). Proofread the paper yourself, and then give it to a friend. He or she may be able to find errors that you overlooked the first time and offer other helpful suggestions. Rewrite and revise until you come up with an end product that you can be proud of. This process can take one day or more than a week, depending on the amount of time you have and the amount of work you are willing to put forth to produce a strong piece of writing.

      Remember, the writing process is a procedure that takes time, time, and more time. Do not expect yourself to sit down the night before a paper is due and create a masterpiece. Give yourself ample time to organize, structure, and edit your paper. In addition, it is important to go back and revise your draft several times. Try not to think of your papers as being "done," however tempting that may be; strong writers recognize that writing is a constant process of revisions to improve not only content but sentence structure and style as well.

      Finally, remember that if you would like additional help with a paper, free assistance is available at the Hawley Academic Resource Center. Just call us at 961-1524 to make an appointment.

Polysemic Study on English Modals from Image Schemas

        It has a very long history in the study of the meaning of modal verbs, especially the discussion about the logic relationships of possibility and necessity which can be traced back as early as Aristotle’s time. Since then, with the vigorous development of linguistics, the study of the meanings of English modal verbs has become one of the concerns of linguistics. Meanwhile, a growing number of scholars at home and abroad have taken great interest in the study of the modality. 

    From the perspectives of philosophy, logic, cognition, and linguistics, scholars have conducted the researches on the English modality in such an extensive and profound way.People are increasingly paying attention to the meaning of modality rather than just from the angle of the logic. It fits well with the direction development of linguistic research:from the original study of the form and the logic to today’s concern about the development of language meaning and language use in specific contexts. Hence, linguists from different angles on the research of modality have produced different viewpoints.In the linguistic research, it has been a heated topic for decades in the traditional syntax, semantics and pragmatics to analyze and study the multiple meaning items from different perspectives on the meaning of modal verbs. 

     Researchers of traditional grammar, semantics, pragmatics and so on have studied the polysemic meanings of English modal verbs from different perspectives in a deep way to different degrees, among which includes Quirk’s traditional grammar research on the modality, Lyons’ semantics study, and Levinson’s study from the perspective of pragmatics etc. Based on the theory of image schemas, to be more specific, force schemas and the analysis of specific modals’ polysemy in cognitive semantics, the thesis is to vividly demonstrate the polysemy of for English modal verbs, and to reveal the relationship between the world of human experience and their inner world from the analysis of deontic meaning and epistemic meaning of English modal verbs as well as the metaphorical projection. 

     Cognitive linguists such as Talmy, Sweetser, Johnson, and Langacker have illustrated English modal verbs in the cognitive way including image schemas, domains, metaphor mapping, and dynamic evolution models, which enhance the understanding of the relationship between cognition and language.The design of the thesis has been planned in six chapters. The first chapter will state the purpose of the thesis with a brief review of the prevailing theories and the methods of the study in the thesis. The second chapter is going to illustrate the previous study such as traditional grammar study, semantics study and pragmatics, etc. on the polysemy of English modals, and put forward the limitation of the study. Hence, the new approach-cognitive linguistics with advantages will be applied to the analysis of the polysemic study of English modals in the thesis. In the third chapter the cognitive theoretical review will be taken in the study. To be more specific, the theory of image schemas and metaphorical mapping will be employed in the polysemic study. The force schemas will display the mental images for the different English modals of MUST, MAY, WILL, CAN, and SHALL according to their semantic occurrences.

     The metaphorical mapping will make explanations for the cognitive relationship between deontic and epistemic meanings among these English modals, which reveal the deep connection between human cognition and linguistic semantics. Chapter five will give detailed polysemic interpretation of English modals from force schemas supported by the demonstrations of specific examples, and the analysis of the close relationships between the deontic semantics and the epistemic semantics based on metaphorical mapping. The last chapter will end the body of the thesis with a smooth conclusion of the previous parts and some suggestions for later study in this field. 

     To summarize, the study regards the mental process as having special meaning to the meaning interpretation of English modality. The major contribution and significance of the study is to cognitively interpret the polysemy of English modality from the perspective of the force schemas. However, the application of force schema theory is still at the step of experiment to a certain extent. Therefore, the application of force schema to the analysis of English modality needs further improvement.

 MODALS

   They are verbs which 'help' other verbs to express a meaning: it is important to realize that "modal verbs" have no meaning by themselves. A modal verb such as would has several varying functions; it can be used, for example, to help verbs express ideas about the past, the present and the future. It is therefore wrong to simply believe that "would is the past of will": it is many other things.

A few basic grammatical rules applying to modal verbs

•         Modal verbs are NEVER used with other auxiliary verbs such as do, does, did etc. The negative is formed simply by adding "not" after the verb; questions are formed by inversion of the verb and subject:

You should not do that.
Could you pick me up when I've finished?

• Modal verbs NEVER change form: you can never add an "-s" or "-ed", for example.

• Modal verbs are NEVER followed by to, with the exception of ought to.

What sort of meanings do modals give to other verbs?

•        The meaning are usually connected with ideas of DOUBT, CERTAINTY, POSSIBILITY and PROBABILITY, OBLIGATION and PERMISSION (or lack of these). You will see that they are not used to talk about things that definitely exist, or events that definitely happened.

•          These meanings are sometimes divided into two groups: 

DEGREES OF CERTAINTY: certainty; probability; possibility; impossibility

OBLIGATION/FREEDOM TO ACT: permission,lack of permission; ability; obligation.

• Let's look at each modal verb separately, and the functions they help to express:

"Will"

Making personal predictions

I don't think the Queen will ever abdicate.
I doubt if I'll stay here much longer.

Talking about the present with certainty (making deductions)

I'm sure you will understand that there is nothing the Department can do

There's a letter for you. It'll be from the bank: they said they'd be writing.

Talking about the future with certainty

I won't be in the office until 11; I've got a meeting.

Don't bother ringing: they'll have left for their 10 o'clock lecture.

Talking about the past with certainty

I'm sure you will have noticed that attendance has fallen sharply.

Reassuring someone

Don't worry! You'll settle down quickly, I'm sure.

It'll be all right! You won't have to speak by yourself.

Making a decision

For the main course I'll have grilled tuna.

I'm very tired. I think I'll stay at home tonight.

Making a semi-formal request

Will you open the window, please? It's very hot in here.
Sign this, will you?

Offering to do something

You stay there! I'll fetch the drinks.

Insistence; habitual behavior

I'm not surprised you don't know what to do! You will keep talking in class.

Damn! My car won't start. I'll have to call the garage.

Making a promise or a threat

You can count on me! I'll be there at 8 o'clock sharp.

If you don't finish your dinner off, you'll go straight to bed!

"Shall"

Shall is a form of will, used mostly in the first person. Its use, however, is decreasing, and in any case in spoken English it would be contracted to "-ll" and be indistinguishable from will.

The only time you do need to use it is in questions, when:

Making offers

Shall I fetch you another glass of wine?

Making suggestions

Shall we go to the cinema tonight?

"May" & "Might"

        May & might sometimes have virtually the same meaning; they are used to talk about possibilities in the past, present or future. ("Could" is also sometimes used).

May is sometimes a little bit "more sure" (50% chance); whereas might expresses more doubt (maybe only a 30% chance).

May & might are used, then, for:

Talking about the present or future with uncertainty

She may be back in her office: the lecture finished ten minutes ago.

I may go shopping tonight, I haven't decided yet.

England might win the World Cup, you never know.

Talking about the past with uncertainty

I'm surprised he failed. I suppose he might have been ill on the day of the exam.

They can also sometimes be used for talking about permission, but usually only in formal situations. Instead of saying May I open a window? we would say Is it all right/OK if I open a window? or Can I open a window? for example. You might, however, see:

Students may not borrow equipment without written permission.

"May"

Talking about things that can happen in certain situations

If the monitors are used in poorly lit places, some users may experience headaches.

Each nurse may be responsible for up to twenty patients.

With a similar meaning to although

The experiment may have been a success, but there is still a lot of work to be done. (Although it was a success, there is still ...)

Might

Saying that something was possible, but did not actually happen

You saw me standing at the bus stop! You might have stopped and given me a lift!

"Would "

As the past of will, for example in indirect speech

"The next meeting will be in a month's time" becomes

He said the next meeting would be in a month's time.

Polite requests and offers (a 'softer' form of will)

Would you like another cup of tea?

Would you give me a ring after lunch?

I'd like the roast duck, please.

In conditionals, to indicate 'distance from reality': imagined, unreal, impossible situations


If I ruled the world, every day would be the first day of Spring.

It would have been better if you'd word processed your assignment.

After 'wish', to show regret or irritation over someone (or something's) refusal or insistence on doing something (present or future)


I wish you wouldn't keep interrupting me.

I wish it would snow.

(This is a complicated area! Check in a good grammar book for full details!)

Talking about past habits (similar meaning to used to)


When I was small, we would always visit relatives on Christmas Day.

Future in the past

The assassination would become one of the key events of the century.

"Can" & "Could"

Talking about ability

Can you speak Mandarin? (present)
She could play the piano when she was five. (past)

Making requests

Can you give me a ring at about 10?
Could you speak up a bit please? (slightly more formal, polite or 'softer')

Asking permission

Can I ask you a question?
Could I ask you a personal question? (more formal, polite or indirect)

Reported speech

Could is used as the past of can.

He asked me if I could pick him up after work.

General possibility

You can drive when you're 17. (present)
Women couldn't vote until just after the First World War.

Choice and opportunities

If you want some help with your writing, you can come to classes, or you can get some 1:1 help.
We could go to Stafford tomorrow, but the forecast's not brilliant. (less definite)

Future probability

Could (NOT can) is sometimes used in the same way as might or may, often indicating something less definite.

When I leave university I might travel around a bit, I might do an MA or I suppose I could even get a job.

Present possibility

I think you could be right you know. (NOT can)
That can't be the right answer, it just doesn't make sense.

Past possibility

If I'd known the lecture had been cancelled, I could have stayed in bed longer.

"Must"

Examples here refer to British English; there is some variation in American English.

Necessity and obligation

Must is often used to indicate 'personal' obligation; what you think you yourself or other people/things must do. If the obligation comes from outside (eg a rule or law), then have to is often (but not always) preferred:

I really must get some exercise.
People must try to be more tolerant of each other.
You mustn't look - promise?
If you own a car, you have to pay an annual road tax.

Strong advice and invitations

I think you really must make more of an effort.
You must go and see the film - it's brilliant.
You must come and see me next time you're in town.

Saying you think something is certain

This must be the place - there's a white car parked outside.
You must be mad.
What a suntan! You must have had great weather.

The negative is expresses by can't:

You're going to sell your guitar! You can't be serious!
She didn't wave - she can't have seen me.

"Should "

Giving advice

I think you should go for the Alfa rather than the Audi.
You shouldn't be drinking if you're on antibiotics.
You shouldn't have ordered that chocolate dessert - you're not going to finish it.

Obligation: weak form of must

The university should provide more sports facilities.
The equipment should be inspected regularly.

Deduction

The letter should get to you tomorrow - I posted it first class.

Things which didn't or may/may not have happened

I should have renewed my TV license last month, but I forgot.
You shouldn't have spent so much time on that first question.

"Ought to"

Ought to usually has the same meaning as should, particularly in affirmative statements in the present:

You should/ought to get your hair cut. 

 

Good Day!